Combat Operations C 3 I Fundamentals and Interactions

formula for victory was “to reach the decisive point thanks to the freedom of action gained by sound economy of force.”50 The essence of this prescription is simple, but Beaufre recognizes Clausewitzian friction as a primary factor. He stresses this friction along with psychological aspects of warfare throughout his work. More therefore than all plans and schemes based on material factors, the art of battle consists in maintaining and strengthening the psychological cohesion of one’s own troops while at the same time disrupting that of the enemy’s. The psychological factor is therefore all-important.51 Beaufre’s analysis of combat operations provides a framework for the use of the military in pursuit of national objectives. Beaufre emphasizes the integration of politics and the military even more than Clausewitz. He insists on the concept of “total strategy,” incorporating all instruments of national power. Total strategy is defined as the art of applying force so that it makes the most effective contribution towards achieving the ends set by political policy. It is the “art of the dialectic of two opposing wills using force to resolve their disputes.”52 This strategy must govern action in a complex international environment. Beaufre considers the typical situation to involve a protagonist, Al, along with his allies A2, A3, etc. Opposed to this group is a second group––B1, B2, B3, etc. Finally, sitting on the sidelines is a third group of uncommitted parties—C1, C2, C3, etc. Al’s problem is, with the support of the other As, to convince the Bs to conform to his wishes, while insuring that the Cs either assist the As or at least refrain from interfering. Beaufre notes that the Cs can be decisive except in the unusual case when the As have power exceeding the combined power of the Bs and Cs. Hence, the As must work hard to win over Cs, and so must the Bs. This sets the stage for Beaufre’s notion of direct and indirect modes of strategy. In the direct mode, the As directly confront the Bs. Stable results depend upon agreement or inactivity on the part of the Cs. The use of rapid decisive action to present a fait accompli is desirable. In the indirect mode, the As and Bs 15 COMBAT OPERATIONS